Democritus believed that life arose as a result. Brief biography of Democritus and his discoveries

DEMOCRITES (??????????) from Abdera(c. 460/457 - c. 360 BC), Greek philosopher, founder of the atomistic doctrine. Life and writings. Born in the city of Abdera in Thrace. The date of birth of the philosopher was already a controversial issue in Antiquity: according to Apollodorus of Athens - 460/457 (80th ol.), according to Thrasilla, the publisher of the works of D. and the author of "Introduction to the reading of the books of Democritus", - 470 (3rd year of the 77th ol.). Both datings, of which the first one is considered more preferable, have come down in the transmission of Diogenes Laertius (D. L. IX, 41 = ??. ? Lurie). According to the legend transmitted by Diogenes, he studied with “some magicians and Chaldeans” presented by the Persian king Xerxes to Father D. for treating the Persian army passing through Thrace with lunch (fr. XI Lurie). After the death of his father, he spent his part of the rich inheritance on travel, visiting Persia and Babylon, India and Egypt. For some time he lived in Athens (at this time his acquaintance with the teachings of Socrates is assumed). Perhaps D. met in Lampsak with his older contemporary Anaxagoras(the phrase from his “Small World-Building” is known that he “was young when Anaxagoras was old”). D. died at home, having lived for about a hundred years (fr. XLVIII-XLIX L.) and becoming, so arr., one of the most famous long-lived philosophers of Antiquity. It is traditionally believed that the atomist had the greatest influence on D. Leekipp, however, the emergence of atomism as a universal philosophical doctrine, including physics and cosmology, epistemology and ethics, is associated with the name of D.; a doctrine that arose as a synthesis of the problems of the three most ancient philosophical schools of Greece: Milesian (natural philosophy), Eleatic (ontology) and Pythagorean (universal quantitativism). D. attributed the authorship of more than 70 works; their names are given by Diogenes Laertius according to the edition of the Platonist Thrasilla in the order of tetralogy: on ethics, physics (the series of treatises “on causes” is mentioned separately), on mathematics, language and literature, various applied sciences, including medicine (fr. CXV = D. L. IX 46-49); he was also credited with "On Sacred Inscriptions in Babylon" and "The Book of Chaldea" - in line with the stable "Chaldean" myth associated with his education and travels. The publication of Thrasilla began with the book "Pythagoras" (ethical section) - among the philosophers who influenced D., this name is one of the most important. The most frequently mentioned works are "The Big World System" (????? ?????????) and the “Small Worldbuilding”, probably dedicated, respectively, to the arrangement of the cosmos and man; the first of these was also attributed to Leucippus. In addition to the texts of D. himself, subsequent doxography relied mainly on the historical and philosophical writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus; a lot of information about D. was preserved by skeptics who considered him one of the forerunners of Pyrrhonian skepticism. In Antiquity, D. was known not only for the depth of his teaching, but also for the beauty of the style of his works - this is said by Cicero (“clear” Democritus, in contrast to the “dark” Heraclitus), Timon from Fliunt (Democritus - “shepherd of words”), as well as Dionysius of Halicarnassus, of all the Greek philosophers who noted D., Plato and Aristotle as the most eloquent (fr. 827). The signs of his style were: brevity, rhythmic organization of the phrase, alliterations, assonances, neologisms, the widespread use of rhetorical antitheses: atoms and emptiness, macrocosm-universe and microcosm-man, what is and what is not, "established by law" ( = by convention, ????) and existing "actually" (????). Physics. Teaching about the beginnings. Atoms and emptiness - universal principles and main antithesis of pluralistic ontology D. Atom (? ?????? ?????, "indivisible essence") is the smallest body, indivisible for the same reason that the "being" of Parmenides is indivisible: division implies the presence of emptiness, but inside the atom, by definition, there is no emptiness. Like being in Parmenides, the atoms of D. are eternal and unchanging. The introduction of the atom is traditionally understood as a reaction to the problem of fission ad infinitum discussed Zeno of Elea; if there were no atoms, the process of fission of any body would be endless, and we would get one finite thing, consisting of an infinite number of parts, which is absurd. Emptiness (?????) In the system, dynamism acts as the principle of discreteness, multitude, and motion of atoms, and also as their "receptacle." Calling the void "non-existence", D. clearly abandoned the Eleatic postulate of the non-existence of non-existence, however, the concepts of being and non-being are included in his more general concept of "what is really" (????), thanks to which reality was also recognized behind emptiness (non-being). The atom is conceived in the series: being, something (???, neologism D., translated by Lurie "ul", fr. 197), body, fullness. The explication of the semantic series "atom", thus, is as follows: to be means to be something, to be something means to be a body, to be a body means to be complete (solid). Emptiness is correlated with the concepts: non-existence, nothing (?????, "zero"), infinity. Atoms and the void exist on an equal footing, "no more "something" than "nothing"", ?? ?????? ?? ??? ? ?? ????? (??. 7; 78) - this principle of "isonomy" (equality) is universal in the D system. All atoms, the number of which is infinite, are forever moving, and even inside solids they make oscillatory movements ("shake in all directions") . The primary cause of this movement is the collision of atoms, which began in vortex cosmogenesis - the cosmos of D. is completely mechanistically determined. Equally dense atoms differ from each other in three properties: "figure" (??????), "size" and "rotation" (position in space). If we slightly change the Aristotelian example with letters (see Met. I 4), then B differs from in size, B from? - figure, and P from b - turn; the fourth distinguishing characteristic, "order," refers to the way in which atoms are connected to each other (BPP as opposed to PBP, etc.), as a result of which bodies composed of atoms have various qualities. The figures (forms) of atoms are infinitely diverse, because, according to the principle of "isonomy", there is no reason to prefer one form to another and thus limit the number of forms of atoms ("no more" such "than" such "", ????? ?????? ???????? ? ????????, ??. 147). At the same time, all reasoning about the forms of atoms is completely speculative, because the atom as such is not accessible to sensory perception. (??????) and D. himself called his atoms ????? (“kinds”, “forms”), having introduced this term even before Plato to denote the essence, seen only by thought (fr. 198). In accordance with the law of the conservation of being (“nothing comes from nothing”), the emergence and destruction of complex bodies occurs through the connection and separation of atoms. The four elements of the physical world - fire, air, water and earth - are also made up of atoms. Only to the atoms of fire D. attributed a certain shape - spherical (for the ball is the most mobile of all figures), it is known about the other three elements that they have the same shape, but the magnitude is different: the largest atoms of the earth, the smallest of the air. These three elements are a mixture of atoms of all forms, for this reason they can interconvert: by isolating larger atoms, water can turn into air, or earth into water (criticism of this view with the remark that how, then, is the reverse process possible, see Aristotle, "On Heaven" III4). There are discrepancies in the evidence about whether atoms have weight: according to Aristotle and Theophrastus, the weight of D. atoms is proportional to their size (fr. 368; 369), Aetius and Cicero deny that atoms have weight (fr. 365). Cosmogony, cosmology and astronomy. Atoms infinite in number move continuously in an infinite void; colliding with each other and interlocking due to the irregularities of their forms, they “intertwine” and form countless worlds (spaces). Our cosmos was formed thanks to some spontaneous "Whirlwind" (????, cf. the same with Anaximander and Anaximenes), caused by a huge confluence of atoms that broke through into the "great void" (fr. 288-291). As a result of this vortex motion, which was the result of an inhomogeneous distribution of atoms in the void, their primary sorting took place - similar atoms to similar ones, with the larger ones in the center, and the Earth came from them (fr. 370). A "wet and mud-like" shell initially rotated around it, which gradually dried up, the wet matter went down, and the dry matter ignited from friction, and stars formed from it. The earth is in the center of the cosmos according to the principle of "isonomy" - "there is no reason why it would rush to one side rather than the other" (fr. 379; 403), it remains motionless (in the sense that it does not move, but " only shakes"), and the firmament, i.e. air, revolves around the Earth and does not allow it to fall, although it itself is heavier than air (fr. 378). Its shape is round in diameter, but convex towards the middle (fr. 404-405), and the length is one and a half times the width (fr. 407). Closest to the Earth is the Moon, farthest away - the Sun, all the other planets - between them, at the extreme periphery are the stars (fr. 389). During their rotation, the Sun and stars squander their matter, but also absorb from the outside, which was called by the doxographers "nourishment from evaporation" (Fr. 397). The cosmos exists as long as it is able to attach matter to itself from the outside, otherwise its disintegration begins (fr. 391, 393). According to D., the Sun and the Moon arose separately from our cosmos during incomplete cosmogonic processes (fr. 395), and then entered our cosmos, where they heated up and acquired the current fiery state. The moon shines by reflected light (“powered by the Sun”), but also has its own glow of the color of red-hot coal, which is visible during lunar eclipses (??. 399). D. paid special attention to explaining the appearance of comets, the brightness of the Milky Way, and so on. )”, “Description of celestial bodies”, “Description of the rotating firmament”. Information has been preserved on the calculation of the D. of the solar calendar, taking into account leap years, everyday meteorological observations (ephemeris), and long-term weather predictions based on the days of the summer and winter solstices (fr. 421-424). Biology, anthropology, history of culture. Animals originally originated directly from the earth. From the heat, the surface of the semi-liquid earth swelled, and putrefactive bubbles formed, similar to swamps. Inside these bubbles, life originated. At night, the embryos fed on the frost that fell from the surrounding air; during the day, the bubbles hardened from the heat. When these fruit-bearing mounds increased enough in size, different kinds of animals were born. Those who had more heat flew up and became flying; in whom the earth prevailed, they became reptiles and other land animals, and in whom water prevailed, they became waterfowl. In time, the heat of the sun dried up the life-giving bubbles, and other animals were subsequently formed by procreation from each other. D. had the following opinion about the emergence of the sexes: if an individual had time to fully mature (“bake”) in an earthen bubble, then a male was obtained, more fiery and active by nature, and if not, a female was obtained. D.'s view of the origin and evolution of life is restored according to the text of the "History" of Diodorus Siculus (whose source on these issues was Hekatey Abdersky, a student of D.). The ideas of D. were accepted and developed by the Epicureans, and in the fifth book of the poem Lucrezia"On the Nature of Things" is set forth in its essence from Democritus' material. The evidence of Aristotle (in the "History of Animals" and "On the Origin of Animals") show that D. systematically engaged in observations of wildlife in its various forms. He was looking for the cause of all phenomena: where does the spider web come from and why deer and bulls grow horns, why mules are barren and how deformities arise. D. paid special attention to the study of various stages of the process of generation, from conception and intrauterine development of the fetus to the characteristics of childbirth, depending on the climatic conditions of the area. Traditionally, like all pre-Socratics, D. considered anthropology as part of cosmology and natural philosophy. D expressed the idea of ​​the evolution of mankind, which arose along with other living beings, from primitive forms of community life, explained by the instinct of self-preservation due to danger and fear of wild animals, to higher forms associated with the achievements of culture. According to D., people created a culture (including agriculture, various crafts, musical art), imitating the nature and skills of various animals, over time learned from their own experience to choose and preserve what is useful for life. Probably, interest in the history of culture prompted D. to undertake his own calculation of the so-called. Trojan era - the year of the capture of Troy by the Greeks. The events described in Homer's epic were considered the earliest in history, and an indirect conclusion was drawn from them about the time of the existence of mankind itself. D.'s calculations showed approx. 1150 BC e. The doctrine of the soul and knowledge. Paying serious attention to the study of various aspects of human life and humanity, D. did not feel the need in the spirit of his contemporary philosophy to define what a person is. Doxographers retained the logically unsophisticated: "Man is what everyone knows" (fr. 165). Meanwhile, D. was the first to develop in detail the theory of sensory cognition and was one of the first to point out the dependence of the properties and qualities of things on the way they are perceived, during which, if not the cognized object itself, then, in any case, its image changes. According to D., all the concepts that make up the language of our description of the external world do not correspond to anything "truly", because all our knowledge is, in essence, conventional. (????? agreement, custom). “According to custom, sweetness, according to custom, bitterness, according to custom, cold, color, warmth, in fact (????) - atoms and the void” (fr. 90; 55). In the same sense, the word ????? ("custom") before D. was used by Empedocles, speaking of the conditionality of such familiar words as "birth" and "death", while the primary elements are actually eternal (cf.: DK31 B 9). According to D., since atoms do not have qualities (color, smell, taste, etc.), then things do not have these qualities either, because “nothing comes from nothing.” In this case, its logic is comparable to the logic of reasoning Anaxagora, only with directly opposite conclusions: according to Anaxagoras, if there is a qualitative variety in the sensory world, then the same variety must be attributed to pachatm homeomerism. D. explained sensory perception with the help of “outflows” from bodies: a certain material film flies off the surface of bodies in different directions, preserving the shape of the perceived body (???????, “Vidik”), it enters the eye, then into the soul, in which it is imprinted - this is how our ideas arise (cf. Empedocles' doctrine of material outflows). All sensory qualities, according to D., are the result of the impact of atoms on the organ of perception, while the impression is formed, on the one hand, due to the formal and quantitative differences of atoms, their combinations and the nature of pores - voids that separate atoms inside bodies, and on the other hand, due to the structure of the perceived organ. D.'s explanation of visual and gustatory perceptions can be reconstructed from Theophrastus' work "On Sensation and the Sensible." D. recognized four simple colors: white, black, red and greenish. Particles that give the impression of white are smooth, pores in white objects are straight, and black particles are rough, uneven and uneven in shape. The red color is associated with round ones, like warmth, but large in size. The greenish color is made up of solid and empty, its shades vary depending on the "position" and "order" of the atoms. The remaining colors are formed by mixing from the four primary colors, penetrating and mutually filling the pores of the coloring matter in different proportions. Explaining taste sensations, D. also attributed to each taste (salty, sweet, spicy, sour, bitter, caustic) its particles, but at the same time noted that none of the forms occurs in its pure form, but is mixed with others, and only according to the predominance of some form is given names to one or another quality. Theophrastus noted that D. did not speak about smells with the same certainty, considering this his omission (fr. 500-502). Differences in the perception of different faces (what seems sweet to the majority, may seem bitter to someone) were explained both by the variability of the object (the same atom, “turning”, can be perceived as both sour and sweet), and by the variability of the subject and the difference in the structure of the pores of the perceiving organ, which allowed more atoms of one form to penetrate from the outside than atoms of another, thus forming the final perception as sweet or bitter. Skepticism in the theory of knowledge stemmed from the relativity of sensory knowledge: according to Aristotle, D. believed that the truth or not, or it is unknown to us (Fr. 52), Sextus Empiricus brought D. closer to the skeptical tradition. A number of his statements support this view: “A person is removed from true reality” (fr. 48), “We don’t really know anything, but everyone has their own changeable opinion (?????????? ?????)» (??. 49), "Knowing what things really are is very difficult" (Fr. 50), cf. also fr. 51: "the truth is in the depths." Questions about the nature of the soul, knowledge and cognitive abilities were discussed by D. in the context set by his predecessors and contemporaries: Empedocles, Protagoras, Anaxagoras. Without deviating from atomism or from the principle “like is known by like,” D. believed that the soul consists of the smallest atoms of a spherical shape (of the same type as fire), therefore it imparts heat and movement to the body - that is, life ; at the same time, the atoms of the soul and body are physically “mixed”, but the value primacy in the soul-body pair is given to the soul (cf. fr. 784). According to Aristotle, D. identified the soul and mind (fr. 67-68), but the commentator John Philopon notes that D. himself does not say this anywhere, but Aristotle deduced this syllogistically. In the pre-Socratic tradition, there was still no doctrine of the hierarchical structure of the soul, first developed by Plato. To convey the idea of ​​the center of consciousness and understanding in man, D. also uses the term "soul" (????), and the terms "knowledge" (?????), "intelligence" (????), "thinking" (?? ???????), "thinking" (?????). As the soul is different from the body, although it also consists of atoms, so D. distinguished the mind from the soul, in the sense of the difference between thinking and sensory perception, while he explained both processes through “printing images”. On the one hand, there are two kinds of knowledge: "genuine" (????? ??????) and "dark" (????? ??????), ??. 83 (= Sext. Adv. math. VII 139, which immediately translates D.'s terminology into his contemporary language: ?????? ??? ??? ???????? / ??? ??? ?????????). “Dark” refers to perception with the help of the five senses, and “genuine” refers to the perception of the invisible because of its smallness, i.e. atoms. On the other hand, D. argued that feelings are the criterion for reliability, and reason (????), if it departs from sensory experience, it is unreliable (fr. 79-80). As a scientist, D. was interested in the differences between sleep and wakefulness, life and death (the last topic, perhaps, was devoted to the op. "That in Hades", in which D. collected evidence of people who were considered dead, but then returned to life, French 585 = Procl. In Remp.?, 113). Within the framework of his theory of outflows of “idol” forms, he proposed an explanation of dreams as atomic images of past events that hover in space and enter the soul during sleep; at the same time, at the time of autumn leaf fall, when the air is swayed by falling leaves, the shells reach us distorted, so that autumn dreams cannot be trusted; or rather, dreams at a time when the shells fly through the air without hindrance (fr. 476). After the death of the body, the atoms of the soul dissipate in the surrounding air, but since this process does not occur instantly, even dead bodies, according to D., have some kind of sensation ability (fr. 586). D. studied the state of lethargic sleep and cases of the so-called. “resurrection of the dead”, which he explained by the fact that in the allegedly dead “all life has not gone out”, and even doctors cannot establish the exact signs of the end of life (fr. 585-586). He made observations in cemeteries (fr. 587), studied the post-mortem changes that occur with corpses, and for better preservation advised keeping corpses in honey (fr. 588). The main cause of the death of a living being, as well as the cause of the death of the cosmos, D. considered the cessation of the influx of particles from the outside, capable of nourishing the soul, so that the internal vital heat gives way to cold and death (cf. Arist. De resp. 472alO-l 1: “in inhalation and exhalation are life and death. The doctrine of the gods and attitude to religion. D. recognized the existence of gods, believing them to be intelligent beings consisting of atoms, very large and very long-lived, but not eternal. From them, as well as from everything bodily, films-“idols” (??????) also come out, and some are “good”, and others are “evil”; they foreshadow the future "by their appearance and uttered sounds" (fr. 578; 472a), most often these images fly into us in a dream through the pores of the body. The main result of D.'s reasoning about the gods is that one should not be afraid of them, but asking for a beneficial effect is very prudent. Such an explanation of the existence of the gods, according to Cicero, borders on the denial of their existence (fr. 472a), and in Antiquity D. had a stable reputation as an atheist, especially since he associated fortune-telling, traditional belief in gods and posthumous retribution with superstitions and fear of death (fr. 581; 583). D. connected the emergence of traditional religion and belief in the existence of gods mainly with ignorance of the true causes of natural phenomena, and primarily those that attracted special attention to celestial phenomena, such as thunder, lightning, comets, conjunctions of luminaries, eclipses of the Moon and the Sun (Sext. Adv Math. IX 24). Ethics. Ethical fragments D. make up the most significant collection of the period before Plato. Diogenes Laertius indicates the following works according to the edition of Thrasilla: "Pythagoras", "On the State of the Spirit of the Wise Man" (???? ??? ??? ????? ?????????), “About what is in Hades”, “Tritogeny”, “On valor, or On virtue” (???? ??????????? ? ???? ??????), "The Horn of Amalthea", "On Euthymia", "Ethical Notes". In addition, it is recognized that the collection of moral instructions in the "Anthology" of John Stobeus (more than 100 sayings, in the collection of Lurie, most of them are included in the group of fr. 595-800), placed under the names "Democritus" and "Democrat", contains in including authentic material, but in its present form these texts are the result of a long process of compiling excerpts and paraphrases, so it is very difficult to judge how closely each statement conveys the words of D. himself. D.'s ethics is a continuation of his atomistic physics: just as an atom is a complete and self-sufficient being, so a person is a self-sufficient being, the happier the more closed in himself. To express his understanding of happiness, D. came up with several terms: "complacency" (???????, eutumia), "welfare" (??????), "fearlessness" (???????), ataraxia, also used the traditional terms "harmony" and "regularity" (fr. 742). The central concept of his ethics is euthymia, which was the subject of a separate book. The doctrine of complacency-euthymia is in connection with D.'s criticism of traditional religion and beliefs in fate (tyukhe). Neologisms ??????? And ?????? emphasized his rejection of the traditional understanding of happiness as bestowed by the gods (evdaimonia, ??????????) or a good case (eutychia, ???????): as a result, the very principle of happiness acquired not an external, but an internal conditionality. The meaning of the term is primarily associated with the concept of measure, self-restraint in relation to bodily pleasures: “Eutyumia arises due to moderation in pleasures and measured life” (fr. 657). Possessing complacency (? ???????, in essence, a sage) knows how to rejoice in what he has, without envying someone else's wealth and glory, he strives for fair and lawful deeds, which is why “both in a dream and in reality” he is joyful, balanced and truly healthy; he works to the best of his ability (“every kind of work is more pleasant than rest”), but he is wary of being “too active in private and public affairs” (fr. 737). Euthymia is not identical with pleasure, it is such a state in which the soul is “calm and unshakable, not tormented by any fears, superstitions or other experiences” (fr. 735). Pleasure and suffering D. considered the criteria for distinguishing between good and evil (fr. 734 = Sext. Adv. math. VII 140), but he avoids the hedonistic design of his teachings by appealing to an internal evaluation criterion, called or "deity" (??????) in us, or “shame before oneself” (fr. 604), which turns out to be the basis of moral behavior and the true “nature” of the soul, in contrast to external institutions. The ability to be ashamed to the greatest extent is a virtue; reliable education is based on it (Fr. 692). D., unlike the sophists, emphasizes not the difference, but the closeness of education (training, ??????) and nature: training forms (??????????) man and through this develops his nature (?????????), ??. 682. The ideas of D. about education as a second nature became a fruitful alternative to the dominant philosophy in the 5th century. rigid opposition "nature - law" and influenced the ethical and social theories of the classical period. Influence. It is traditionally believed (thanks to Epicurean historiography) that D. was a teacher Protagora(D. L. IX 42) and, accordingly, influenced the formation of the relativistic teachings of the sophists. It is also considered one of the sources of the formation of the skeptical tradition - the influence on Pyrrho through Metrodorus of Chios And Anaxarchus. But most significant is the comparison of the teachings of D. and epicurus, the second largest supporter of the atomistic theory. As an authoritative opponent, D. is invisibly present on the pages of Plato's works, although Plato himself never mentions his name. Plato's silence is probably explained by the unwillingness to once again give the floor to an influential and popular philosophical theory built on principles directly opposite to his own (including those relating to the emergence of the cosmos, nature, soul, religion, state). To a certain extent, the answer of Plato D. can be considered as a whole his dialogue "Timaeus", in which, among other things, an alternative to the Democritus doctrine of matter and its elementary indivisible particles is presented (in this sense, Plato's physics can typologically be attributed to atomistic teachings, cf. Atomism). Fragm. and trans.: DK II, 81-224; Alfieri V. ?. GH Atomisti: frammenti e testimoni-anze. Bari, 1936; Democrit. Texte zu seiner Philosophie, ausgew., ?bers., komm. u. interpr. v. R. Lbl. Amst, 1989; Fragmente zur Ethik, ?bers, und komm. v. G. Ibscher. Stuttg., 1996; Taylor S. S. W. The Atomists: Leucippus and Democritus. Fragments, A Text and Translation with Commentary. Tornt, 1999. Lurie S. Ya. Democritus: Texts. Translation. Research. L., 1970; Makovelsky A. O. Ancient Greek atomists. Baku, 1946; Democritus in his fragments and testimonies of antiquity. Edited by G. K. Bammel. M., 1935. Lit.: general works: GUTHRIE, HistGrPhilos II, p. 386-507; Kirk G. S., Raven J. ?., Schofield M. The Presocratic Philosophers. Camb., 19572; Furley D.J. The Greek Cosmologists: The Formation of the Atomic Theory and Its Earliest Critics. Vol. 1. Camb., 1987; Taylor C.C.W. The atomists, Long A. A. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy. Camb., 1999, p. 181-204; Lurie S. Ya. Essays on the history of ancient science. M.; L., 1947. Herzel R. Democrits Schrift tgerX????????, -Hermes 14, 1879: 35?-407; Langerback?. ????? ?????????. Studien zu Demokrits Ethik und Erkenntnislehre. V., 1935 (Fr./M., 1967); Alfieri V.E. Atomos Idea: l´origine del concetto dell´atomo nel pensiero greco. Fir., 1953; Vlastos G. Ethics and Physics in Democritus, - PhR 54.6, 1945, p. 578-592; 55. 1, 1946, p. 53-64 (repr.: Furley D. J., Allen R. E. (edd.). Studies in Presocratic Philosophy. Vol. 2. Eleatics and Pluralists. L., 1975, p. 381^408); Democrito e PAtomismo antico. Atti del Convegno Internazionale, a cura di F. Romano. Catania, 1980; O'Brien D. Theories of Weight in the Ancient Word. A Study in the Development of Ideas. Vol. 1. Democritus: Weight and Size: An Exercise in the Reconstruction of Early Greek Philosophy. Leiden, 1981; Proceedings of the First International Congress on Democritus. Ed. L. Benakis. Vol. 1-2. Xanthi, 1984; Kahn Ch. Democritus and the Origins of Moral Psychology, -AJP 106, 1985, p. 1-31; Cole? Democritus and the Sources of Greek Anthropology. Atlanta, 19902; Hirsch U. War Demokrits Weltbild mechanistisch und anti-teleologisch? - Phronesis 35, 1990, p. 225-244; Salem J. D?mocrite: Grains de poussiere dans un rayon de soleil. P., 1996; Annas J. Democritus and Eudaimonism, - Caston V, Graham D. (edd.). Presocratic Philosophy: Essays in Honor of Alexander Mourelatos. L., 2002, p. 169-182; Berryman S. Democritus and the explanatory power of the void, - Ibid., p. 183-191; Mourelatos A.P.D. Intrinsic and Relational Properties of Atoms in the Democritean Ontology, Salles R. (ed.). Metaphysics, Soul, and Ethics: Themes from the work of Richard Sorabji. Oxf., 2005; Lurie S. Ya. Democritus. Introduction by A. Tatarov. M., 1937 [ZhZL]; Zubov V.P. To the question of the mathematical atomism of Democritus, - VDI, 1951, 4, p. 204-208; Asmus V.F. Democritus. M., 1960; Goran V.P. Necessity and chance in the philosophy of Democritus. Novosibirsk, 1984; Berlinsky A. L. Date of birth of Democritus by Apollodorus and Thrasillus, - ?0????0?. To the 70th anniversary of prof. A. I. Zaitseva. SPb., 1997, p. 100-127; He lee. Necessity, chance, freedom: Democritus and his heirs, - Linguistica et Philologica. By the age of 75. prof. Yu. V. Otkupshchikova. SPb., 1999, p. 211-238. M. A. SOLOPOVA

Colleagues of the thinker Democritus gravitated towards a certain current of philosophical thought, occasionally being distracted by related theories. The life attitude of the Abdera philosopher was absolutely opposite - the sage tried to understand many mysterious phenomena, expressed a weighty opinion about the opposing disciplines, and was interested in a wide range of sciences. Therefore, the philosophy of Democritus is a valuable contribution to the development of ancient Greek society, is the basis for subsequent world intellectual concepts.

The life path of a sage

Speaking about the biography of ancient philosophers, it should be remembered that reliable facts about their lives that have come down to our time are practically reduced to zero. We are talking about millennia of ancient history, when there were no cutting-edge devices capable of storing important information (which, moreover, at that time, was not such). We can draw conclusions on the basis of tales, retellings, legends, which to some extent interpret reality. The biography of Democritus is no exception.

Antique manuscripts claim that the ancient Greek philosopher was born in 460 BC. on the east coast of Greece (city of Abder). His family was rich, since most of his life the thinker was busy traveling and thinking, which required considerable expenses. He visited many countries in Asia, Africa, Europe. I saw the ways of different peoples. He made philosophical conclusions from careful observations. Democritus could just burst into laughter for no apparent reason, for which he was taken for a lunatic. Once, for such tricks, he was even taken to the famous doctor Hippocrates. But the doctor confirmed the complete emotional and physical health of the patient, and also noted the exclusivity of his mind. Just the everyday bustle of the townspeople seemed funny to the sage, so he was nicknamed the "laughing philosopher."

Ultimately, the family's fortune was squandered, for which, in ancient Greece, a trial was due. The Thinker appeared before the court, delivered an acquittal speech and was pardoned, the judge considered that his father's money had not been spent in vain.

Democritus lived a respectable life, died 104 years old.

Atomistic materialism through the eyes of Democritus

The predecessor of Democritus, Leucippus, was not well known in the scientific community, but he put forward the theory of the "atom", which was later developed by the Abdera philosopher. It became his most significant work. The essence of the teaching comes down to the study of the smallest indivisible particle, which has a unique natural property - movement. Atoms, the philosopher Democritus, considered as infinity. The thinker, being one of the first materialists, believed: thanks to the chaotic movement of atoms, the variety of shapes and sizes, bodies are combined. Hence comes the atomistic materialism of Democritus.

The scientist assumed the presence of natural interatomic magnetism: “The atom is indivisible, integral. Everything that does not have emptiness inside has at least a small amount of emptiness outside. From the foregoing, they conclude that the atoms still repel each other a little, at the same time they attract. This is a materialistic paradox."

In the words of a materialistically inclined sage, atoms are “what”, vacuum is “nothing”. From this it follows that objects, bodies, sensations have no color, taste, smell, this is just a consequence of a diverse combination of atoms.

The principle of lack of sufficient reason - isonomy

Democritus in his atomistic teaching relied on the methodological principle of isonomy, that is, the absence of a sufficient basis. In more detail, the formulation boils down to the following - any possible phenomenon has ever been or will ever be, because there is no logical proof that any phenomenon existed in an established form, and not some other. The following conclusion follows from democratic atomism: if a particular body has the ability to exist in various forms, these forms are real. The isonomy of Democritus suggests:

• Atoms have unimaginably different sizes and shapes;
• Each space point of vacuum is equal in relation to another;
• The cosmic motion of atoms has a versatile direction and speed.

The last rule of isonomy means that the movement is an independent inexplicable phenomenon, only its changes are subject to explanation.

Cosmology of the "laughing philosopher"

Democritus called the cosmos the "Great Void". According to the theory of the scientist, the primordial chaos gave rise to a whirlwind in the great void. The result of the vortex was the asymmetry of the Universe, later the appearance of the center and the outskirts. Heavy bodies, displacing light ones, accumulate in the middle. The cosmic center, according to the philosopher, is the planet Earth. The earth consists of heavy atoms, the upper shells of light ones.

Democritus is considered an adherent of the theory of the plurality of worlds. The concept implies their infinite number and magnitude; growth trend, stop and decrease; different density of worlds in different places of the great void; the presence of luminaries, their absence or multiplicity; lack of animal, plant worlds.

Since our planet is the center of the universe, it does not need to move. Although in the previous theory, Democritus believed that she was in motion, but for certain reasons she stopped her path.

The cosmologist suggested that the Earth has a centrifugal force that prevents the collapse of celestial bodies on it. The scientific view of the thinker considered the relationship between the removal of celestial objects from the Earth and the slowdown in their speed.

It was Democritus who suggested that the Milky Way is nothing more than a cluster of a huge number of microscopic stars that are in such close proximity to each other that they form a single glow.

Ethics of Democritus

The philosophers of ancient Greece had a special attitude to ethics, each dwelling on his own favorite virtue. For the Abder thinker, it was a sense of proportion. The measure reflects the behavior of the individual, based on his inner potential. Satisfaction, measured by a measure, ceases to be a sensual sensation, develops into good.

The thinker believed that in order to achieve harmony in society, a person must experience euthymia - a state of serene disposition of the soul, devoid of extremes. The idea of ​​euthymia promotes sensual pleasures, extols blissful peace.

Even the Greek philosopher believed that an important aspect of finding happiness is wisdom. Wisdom can only be achieved through the acquisition of knowledge. Anger, hatred, and other vices breed in ignorance.

Democritus and his theory of atoms

The atomistic materialism of the ancient atomist comes from his theory of atoms, which strikingly reflects the conclusions of the materialists of the twentieth century.

The ability of an ancient thinker to construct a theory about the structure of elementary particles, not being able to confirm it with scientific research, is admirable. How talented, what a genius this man was. Living thousands of years ago, he almost unmistakably penetrated one of the hard-to-justify mysteries of the universe. An atom, a molecule, being in continuous chaotic movement within outer space, contribute to the formation of hurricane whirlwinds, material bodies. The difference in their properties is explained by the shape and size diversity. Democritus put forward a theory (not having empirically possible provability) about changes in the human body when exposed to atomic radiation.

Atheism, the meaning of the soul

In ancient times, people attributed the explanation of mysterious phenomena to divine participation; it was not without reason that the Olympic Gods became famous in the civilized world. In addition, a specific sphere of human activity was associated with a certain mythological hero. For Democritus, such legends were subjective. Being an educated materialist, he easily debunked such misunderstandings, explaining them as ignorance, predilection for an easy explanation of complex issues. The deadly argument of the doctrine was the similarity of the celestials with ordinary people, from which the artificiality of the created deities follows.

But the "atheism" of the scientist is not so obvious. The philosopher did not have serious problems with the many-sided spiritual community, did not oppose the state ideology. It has to do with his relationship with the soul. Democritus believed in its existence, in his own way. As the thinker believed, the soul was a cluster of atoms, fusion with the physical body, and leaving it during a period of protracted illness, old age, or before death. The soul is immortal, as an energy clot endlessly wanders through the universe. In short, Democritus proposed the law of conservation of energy.

Ataraxic philosophy of Democritus

It was previously described that the ancient Greek sage showed interest in many areas of human activity, medicine was no exception.

The concept of ataraxia was burning for the philosopher. Ataraxia is defined as a mental state of a person characterized by absolute fearlessness against the background of an emotional upheaval. Democritus attributed this state of mind to the acquisition of wisdom and experience by a person. It can be achieved with the help of the desire for self-improvement, penetration into the mysteries of the universe. Philosophical ancient schools became interested in the ataraxic philosophical thought of the thinker (Epicurean, skeptical, Stoic schools).

But Democritus offers not only to study, to learn, to improve himself, but also to think. He compares the thought process with knowledge, where the former still dominates.

The philosopher's ataraxia reasonably explains the pattern of events. Teaches you how to use the ability to remain silent, which takes precedence over talkativeness. The above dogmas are correct.

These teachings in ancient Greek philosophy and in Roman.

Practice:

Philosophy as a system includes various elements - components: the doctrine of being (about substance, essential properties) - ontology. The doctrine of knowledge - about the truth - gnosiology. The doctrine of thinking (forms and laws of thinking) - logic. Aesthetics- the doctrine of the beautiful and the ugly. Philosophical doctrine of man-philosophical anthropology. Philosophical doctrine of values ​​- axiology.

The question of the relationship between matter and consciousness is called the BASIC QUESTION of PHILOSOPHY.

This question has 2 sides:

1. PARTY OVF.

The question is what is primary and what is secondary - matter or consciousness? Depending on the answer, there are 2 schools of philosophy: materialism and idealism.

2 types of idealism:

1. Objective idealism (as a primary spiritual, existing independently of a person, objective idealism is the teaching of Plato)

2. Subjective (the spiritual ideal principle depends on the person - the will - that is, the initial principle depends on the subject).

2. PARTY OF OVF.

The question is how our knowledge of the world relates to the world: whether they correspond to this world or not. In essence, this is a question about the cognizability of the world: if knowledge corresponds to the surrounding world, then it is true and the world is cognizable by man. If knowledge does not correspond to the state of affairs, then the world is unknowable by man. For the most part, philosophical teachings (both materialistic and idealistic) recognize the cognizability of the world, although the process of cognition itself is interpreted in different ways. However, in philosophy there are teachings that affirm the fundamental unknowability of the world. Such a philosophical movement is agnosticism.

Democritus is rightfully considered one of the greatest philosophers of antiquity. Together with Leucippus, who created and developed the theory of atomism, he went down in history as the founder of modern materialism. His theory is closest to modern scientific thought than the ideas of any of the ancient philosophers.

Biography

The future philosopher was born in the Thracian city of Abdera around 460 BC. in a wealthy family, famous for its righteous way of life. After his death, the father of the family left Democritus and his two brothers Herodotus and Damas a large fortune in the hope that his descendants would increase it.

However, Democritus had no desire to accumulate wealth, and taking 100 talents, he went on a journey to gain new knowledge.

The search for truth led him to the southern and eastern countries, where he spent 8 years adopting the knowledge of Egyptian priests and Persian Chaldeans and magicians.

Interest in Eastern philosophy was probably due to the fact that when Democritus was still a child, his father received the retreating Xerxes with the army. In gratitude for the warm welcome, he left several of his sages as teachers to the owner of the house.

Democritus also went to Athens, where he lived for a year and a half, listening to the lectures of Socrates and talking with Anaxagoras.

Due to extreme need, he was forced to interrupt his wanderings and return to his native Abders, where he was accused of embezzling property. At the trial, he made a speech where he explained to fellow citizens that he had studied the culture and scientific achievements of other countries during his travels, which could be extremely useful. The trial ended successfully for the philosopher, he was acquitted and even awarded a monetary reward.

He lived in Abdera until his death in 370 BC. e. at that time he was 90 years old. However, according to Hipparchus, the great philosopher lived to be 109 years old and died peacefully, without suffering from any illnesses. The expenses for the funeral ceremonies were covered by the city treasury, and many Abdera citizens came to the burial itself in order to pay last respects to the great compatriot.

Philosophical ideas and views

1. Theory of Atoms

The main philosophical achievement of Democritus is, of course, the theory of atoms. According to her, everything that exists consists of the smallest indivisible particles - atoms. There is empty space between the atoms, and the atoms themselves are indestructible and in constant motion.

Aristotle, quoting Democritus, endows atoms with weight, but this is not entirely true.

To quote Democritus close to the context, he said that the movement of atoms is like dust particles moving in a sunbeam without any wind. Colliding, clusters of atoms form whirlwinds, however, in contrast to the opinion of Anaxagoras, they are driven not by some Mind (nous), but by mechanical causes.

“When a knife cuts an apple, it does not cut the atoms, but the void between them. if the apple did not have this emptiness, it would be impossible to cut it”

Each atom itself is internally unchanged, but sometimes when certain atoms collide with each other, they can create compounds.

There are an infinite number of atoms, but each characterizes 3 parameters:

• Figure (Atoms differ in shape, as, for example, D and T)
• Size (W and W)
• Turn (Meaning the same atom, but occupying a slightly different position in space, approximately like the letters P and b)

In addition to these three, there is a fourth characteristic called "order". It determines the properties of compounds formed when atoms stick together

There are an infinite number of forms of atoms. But according to Democritus, both the soul and fire consist of the same spherical atoms, which differ, probably, in other characteristics.

From the vortices, which are obtained by the collision of clusters of atoms, bodies are created, and subsequently worlds. Each world must have a beginning and an end, and it can also be destroyed when it collides with a world larger than itself.

2. Theory of the origin of life

In The Small World-Building, Democritus assumed that life arose due to spontaneous generation. He argued that "flies start in rotten meat, and worms in mud." By the same analogy, he suggested that the first life originated in some kind of primitive slime.

Man was the result of a long selection among the fittest creatures, however, evolution should not end on him. In order to survive, people had to work together. This led to the emergence of speech, and subsequently the formation of languages, communities and cities.

In the body of every living being, Democritus believed, there is a certain amount of fire (probably referring to the spherical atoms that make up the soul). The soul containing fire in itself endows the body with warmth and sets it in motion. The largest amount of fire is in the brain or in the chest.

3. Thinking and perception

Thought was presented to Democritus as a kind of movement capable of causing movement.

Democritus, unlike many compatriots, believed that thinking and perception are quite material physical processes.

Perception is of two types:

• Reasoning - this type of perception depends only on the things themselves and, in fact, are characteristics that are actually inherent in the perceived objects. These include such parameters as: gravity, density, hardness, width, volume, etc.
• With the help of sensory perception, we give characteristics to objects, guided by our senses with which we perceive them. These include: color, taste, warmth, smell. These qualities are not really inherent in objects, but only our idea of ​​them.

outlook

Democritus, as an ardent supporter of determinism, did not believe in chance. The only thing that, in his opinion, happened by chance, is the very moment of the creation of the world. The rest of the processes occur in obedience to mechanical laws.

His philosophy is completely materialistic, the soul, in his opinion, consists of atoms, and thinking is a physical process. Rejecting the teleological argument, which invariably leads to the assertion of the existence of some original Creator, he argued that the universe has no purpose, there are only atoms moving in the void, governed by mechanical laws.

He was an absolute atheist, rejected conventional religion and believed that people created the gods in an attempt to explain the existing world order. He also opposed Anaxagora's concept of "Nus", which was a kind of universal mind that sets everything in motion.

Ethics

In life, the great philosopher adhered to the principles built by his own atomic theory. The atom, in the understanding of Democritus, is complete and self-sufficient. A person, by analogy with an atom, is happy exactly as much as he is closed in on himself.

Such a view resonated with modern existential psychotherapists who, in their therapy, seek to awaken his own “I” in a person, making his life as conscious and independent as possible.

The central concept of his ethical doctrine is euthymia, which can be translated as "complacency". By complacency, Democritus meant moderation in pleasures and leading a measured life.

A sage who has achieved euthymia is free from envy, is able to rejoice in what he has, works to the best of his ability and tries to act justly and according to the law.

He considered it not the best idea to force morality with the help of force and laws, because a person who came to an understanding of morality, thanks to verbal persuasion and inner attraction, would be more moral.

Wisdom and a sense of proportion are the most important qualities for a true sage. Wisdom is the ability to think, speak, and act correctly.

The mental health of a person depends on right thoughts, because right thinking is designed to save a person from far-fetched anxieties and fears, such as the fear of death or the fear of God's wrath, so common in antiquity.

Democritus considered the ability to speak well to be a manifestation of openness and truthfulness, and good deeds should be the practical embodiment of moral principles.

An ignorant person will always be unhappy because they hold wrong ideas about pleasure, happiness, and life's purpose. This statement shows how highly he appreciated the role of knowledge in moral education.

Democritus considered it necessary to take into account, when passing a verdict on the morality or correctness of an act, not only the action itself, but also the motive or desire of a person to perform this action.

"The enemy is not the one who inflicts insults, but the one who does it intentionally"

Personal and social life

As far as is known, the great philosopher preferred education and science to his personal life. He treated sexual life with sharp disapproval, since he believed that during sexual intercourse, primitive animal instincts take possession of a man and at this time pleasure occupies a dominant position over consciousness.

He also had a very low opinion of women and considered them stupid, talkative and useless creatures, suitable only for childbearing.

There were even rumors that at the age of 90, Democritus blinded himself so as not to look at women, but this version turned out to be erroneous, since it turned out that he was blind for natural reasons.

The philosopher himself also treated childbirth with hostility, believing that caring for and raising children is not worth the effort that will have to be spent on it, moreover, it distracts from philosophizing and doing sciences, which Democritus considered much more important. Of course, he did not leave offspring after himself.

Nevertheless, he highly valued friendship, however, he preferred to spend most of his time walking around the cemetery in peace and quiet, thinking about the problems of the universe.

According to eyewitnesses, the philosopher could suddenly laugh during a conversation, as if staying in his thoughts, inaccessible to the interlocutor. Democritus himself, in response to a question about his causeless laughter, said that he laughs, because he sees how stupid and funny simple everyday problems are compared to the greatness of the universe. The image of a laughing Democritus is often found in painting. He is often contrasted with Heraclitus, who was a very sad and compassionate person.

Another hobby of Democritus was the dissection of dead animals and the study of their organs. This seemed abnormal to his friends and one day they called Hippocrates to make sure of the mental health of Democritus.

Hippocrates consoled them, saying that everything was in order with the mental and physical health of the great scientist and noted that he had never met such an intelligent and erudite person before.

Criticism

Of course, not all of his contemporaries liked this worldview, and Plato, according to rumors, even wanted to burn the works of Democritus.

Some famous ancient philosophers condemned his too materialistic view of the world. Aristotle reproached Democritus and Leucippus for not explaining why the movement of atoms began at all, although they claim that all other processes in the world obey mechanical principles.

With regard to this issue, here the opinion of Democritus and Leucippus is more like a scientific approach, because if you start to reason, then any causality must have a beginning. And whatever was the beginning, it is impossible to indicate the causes of the initial event.

It can be stated that the reason for the existence of the world is a certain Creator, but then you will have to come up with a reason for him, and then for the Super-Creator, which, in the end, will lead your thoughts to a dead end.

But much more often he was condemned because of his atheism and unwillingness to have children, although he devoted some part of his life to the study of embryology.

Afterword

Democritus is by far one of the most important figures in ancient Western philosophy. According to Bertrand Russell, he was the last Greek philosopher free from anthropocentrism. He was a true researcher and never put the problem of man above the problem of the universe. Moreover, he laughed at everyday and everyday problems, realizing how insignificant they really are.

He developed a truly ingenious concept, which became the basis of modern science thousands of years later. In his style of thinking, he was closer to the pre-Socratics, who studied the world with childish curiosity.

All subsequent Greek philosophers devoted too much time to the study of methods of knowledge (sophists). And even such great people as Plato, who exalts his "world of ideas" over the real world, and Aristotle, who put faith in the goal as the main concept of science.

The death of Democritus marks the end of the pre-Socratic era and the beginning of a new philosophy, which, gradually developing, will nevertheless come to a decline in the Middle Ages. And only the philosophers of the Renaissance can boast the same energy and enthusiasm for understanding the world as the pre-Socratics.

The summary of his works is no less interesting. If you have not met this thinker yet, we invite you to do so. Democritus is an ancient Greek philosopher whose years of life are from about 460 to 360 BC. e. He is known for being the founder of the atomistic doctrine. According to Democritus, only emptiness and atoms exist in the world.

Atomism of Democritus

Atoms are material indivisible elements ("figures", geometric bodies), impenetrable, indestructible, eternal. They differ in size, position in the void, shape. Atoms move in different directions. Thanks to these movements, both countless worlds and separate bodies are formed. Atoms are invisible to humans, but they act on our senses, thereby causing sensations. But we will not dwell on this in detail, since ahead is the biography of Democritus. About physics it can be read separately; if you are interested in it, it will not be difficult to find information today. We propose to get acquainted now with the philosopher himself.

When was Democritus born?

We will assume that an interesting biography of Democritus begins in 460 BC. e. Although even in ancient times, the date of birth of this philosopher was a controversial issue. According to Apollodorus, he was born in 460 or 457 BC. e. However, Thrasyll, who is the publisher of the writings of this philosopher, expressed a different opinion. He believed that Democritus was born in 470 BC. e. This question is still open.

Education and travel

A lot of dark spots are left by the biography of Democritus, a summary of whose works is of interest even today (what a pity that the originals have not been preserved!) This philosopher came from a wealthy family. According to the legend, transmitted by Diogenes Laertius, he studied with the Chaldeans and magicians, presented to his father. Xerxes allegedly made such a gift to him because he treated the Persian army passing through Thrace to dinner. Democritus spent the rich inheritance left after the death of his father on travel. He traveled to Babylon and Persia, Egypt and India. For some time the philosopher also lived in Athens, where he listened to Socrates incognito. It is possible that Democritus also met with Anaxagoras. His biography is filled with many assumptions, but do not forget how long ago he lived. Recreating the life path of many of his contemporaries is very difficult.

The behavior of Democritus

The biography of Democritus is filled with many curious details. The most interesting, perhaps, is connected with his way of life. The behavior of this philosopher seemed incomprehensible to many of his contemporaries. Democritus often left the city. In order to hide from the bustle of the city, he came to the cemetery. Here the philosopher indulged in reflections. Often, Democritus burst into laughter for no apparent reason: all human affairs seemed to him amusing against the backdrop of world order. Because of this feature, this thinker even received the nickname "laughing philosopher." Many fellow citizens considered him insane. They even invited Hippocrates, the famous physician, to examine him. He actually met with the philosopher, but decided that he was absolutely healthy both mentally and physically. Moreover, he claimed that one of the smartest people with whom he had to communicate was Democritus.

His biography is interrupted presumably in 370 BC. when this thinker died. Thus, he lived for about a hundred years.

Synthesis of three schools

It is believed that the atomist Leucippus had the greatest influence on this philosopher. Nevertheless, the emergence of atomism as a universal doctrine in philosophy, including ethics, psychology, epistemology, cosmology and physics, is associated precisely with Democritus. His teaching is a synthesis of the problems of the three schools of Greece: Pythagorean, Eleatic and Milesian. The philosophy of other countries visited by Democritus also left its mark. His biography, as you remember, is connected with many travels.

The writings of Democritus

It is believed that Democritus is the author of more than 70 different works. The titles of the works lead The thinker is credited with the authorship of works on physics, ethics, literature and language, mathematics, as well as applied sciences, including medicine. Moreover, Democritus was even considered the creator of the "Chaldean Book" and "On Sacred Inscriptions in Babylon" (within the framework of the "Chaldean" myth associated with the travels and education of this philosopher).

The beauty of the syllable of works

Democritus in antiquity gained fame not only because of the depth of his teaching, but also because of the beauty of the style of his works. Many thinkers have noted this, including Cicero, Timon of Phlius, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. The signs of Democritus' style were: alliteration, rhythmic organization of the phrase, brevity, neologisms, assonances, the widespread use of rhetorical antitheses: "emptiness" and "atoms", "microcosm-man" and "macrocosm-Universe", etc.

We already talked about atoms and emptiness at the beginning of the article. What else interesting can be learned about such a philosopher as Democritus? His biography is also marked by works on ethics, which is a continuation of the atomistic physics of this thinker.

Ethics of Democritus

Just like the atom, man is a self-sufficient being. People are happier the more introverted they are. Democritus came up with several terms to express his own understanding of happiness: "well-being", "complacency", "equanimity", "fearlessness", and also used the traditional terms - "regularity" and "harmony". Euthymia is the central concept of the ethics of this thinker. Even a separate book by Democritus is dedicated to her. The doctrine of euthymia - complacency - is associated with this thinker's criticism of beliefs in fate and traditional religion. The meaning of this term is associated primarily with the concept of measure. That is, a person must limit himself in bodily pleasures. Democritus believed that euthymia arises as a result of a measured life and moderation in pleasures. The wise man rejoices in what he has, not envying the fame and wealth of other people. He strives for lawful and just deeds.

Note that the main part of the fragments of Democritus, which have come down to our days, refers specifically to ethics. However, today it is difficult to judge the degree of accuracy with which the statements convey his words.

Cosmogonic representations

Democritus based them on the concept of the existence of many worlds in the universe. For him, time has no beginning, since it means a change of being that takes place forever. Democritus likened the human body to the cosmos and called it the microcosm. It is known that this thinker recognized the existence of the gods, however, in a very unusual form. For him they are compounds of fiery atoms. Democritus denied the immortality of the gods.

What is the soul according to Democritus?

The philosopher imagined the soul in the form of an atom. It is this atom, he believed, that explains the various features of mental life. The main one is movement. The moving soul must itself be mobile. Therefore, it must be represented in the form of fiery round atoms. Thinking is also movement. And when we breathe, together with the air we receive new fiery atoms that replace the spent atoms of our soul. That is why the cessation of this process leads to death. The soul, Democritus believed, is the most essential thing in a person. He advised to take care of her first, and not of the body. The philosopher believed that all objects are animated. The soul that fills the whole world is the deity. However, it obeys mechanical laws and does not differ qualitatively from material existence.

Aesthetics of Democritus

In it, the ancient Greek thinker, apparently, was the first to mark the line between the applied arts that require only skills and artistic creativity, which is impossible without inspiration. In addition, in ethics, Democritus developed the doctrine of immunity to affects (ataraxia).

Now you can also talk about that. A short biography and his discoveries can interest almost any person, so we recommend doing this. Surely many of your friends, relatives and acquaintances do not know what you know. Biography of Democritus, facts from and interesting information about him - all this can be discussed for a very long time.